Risk Assessment Case Study Evaluation Essay Example for Free

Risk Assessment Case Study Evaluation Essay The risk assessment case study evaluates the chromium-contaminated soils. Twelve years of research went into the study to characterize the health hazards caused by the chromium-contaminated soils. Within New Jersey there were at least three different chromate chemical manufacturing companies operating, one in Kearny, New Jersey, and the other two in Jersey City. The study was conducted through a human health risk assessment, which contains four main steps; first identifying the hazard, second the dose response assessment, followed by the exposure assessment, and finalizing with the risk characterization. There are many short and long term health effects found within the risk assessment, which is one reason that assessment is so important. Looking at the risk assessment that was done within the area, the final implication was the simple fact that a remedial cleaning needed to be done within the area. It seems that there may have been a high cost for the study and the actual cleanup, but the benefit of saving an environment and human health is priceless. Risk assessment studies are very important to human and ecological health, therefore no matter the cost associated the benefit will always be much higher. Looking at the risk assessment of chromium-contaminated soils is important; it shows health effects related to chromium and what needs to be done to clean the area for further use by humans and nature. The case study includes a group of hazardous waste sites in Northern New Jersey. At these waste sites a series of unique research efforts were implemented over the past 12 years to improve the accuracy of the Risk Assessment process† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). The case study specifically documents the use of applied research to advance the characterization of both exposure and toxicity associated with the uncontrolled release of hexavalent and trivalent chromium in the form of chromites ore processing residue (COPR) in an urban setting (Paustenbach, 2002). Early investigation began after redevelopment of certain neighborhoods i n downtown Jersey City led to the discovery of COPR. Research conducted by the task force revealed that construction companies and hauling firms had sued or sold the COPR to fill basements of demolished buildings, as base for parking lots and buildings, and/or to fill low – lying areas (Paustenbach, 2002). A total of 2,138 surfaces and subsurface soil samples, 31 groundwater samples from 31 monitoring wells at seven sites, 33 ambient air samples, 19 surface-water and 11 sediment samples, and eight building wall wipe samples were collected and analyzed during the remedial investigation that was conducted by Environmental Sciences and Engineering (ESE). As a result of the investigations conducted in the late 1980s it was clear that there was considerable uncertainty about how better to characterize the potential health risks associated with the COPR sites. â€Å"The human health risk assessment a development used to process the estimation, the nature, and the chance of an adverse health effects occurring in humans who may be exposed to chemicals contaminated with environmental media† (EPA, 2012, p. 1). The risk assessment can be categorized into four steps; the hazard identification, the dose-response assessment, the exposure assessment, and the risk characterization. The easiest to perform and the most recognizable, the first step is to identify the hazards. Hazard identification determines whether exposure to a hazardous agent could be a risk for the health of humans. The assessment also considers the exposure to animals and how the hazardous agent may affect or adversely affect the animals. The second step, the dose-response assessment is â€Å"the process of characterizing the relation between the dose of an agent administered or received and the incidence of an adverse health effect in exposed populations and estimating the incidence of the effect as a function of exposure to the agent† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). Influencing issues are a variable in the second step, such as; age, gender, routines, the amount they are exposed, and the volume that they are exposed. A dose-response relationship describes how the possibility and severity of adverse health effects are related to the amount and condition of exposure to an agent† (EPA, 2012, p. 1). The third step is the exposure assessment. â€Å"Exposure assessment is the process wherein the intensity, frequency, and duration of human exposure to an agent are estimated† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). Last, the final step is the risk characterization. The hazardous effect on health is labeled in the final pha se. By calculation and educated guesses, the incidence of a health effect under the various conditions of human or animal exposure described in the exposure assessment is defined. The community has not been significantly affected by the COPR – containing soils. â€Å"The property values have been kept intact and the businesses on affected properties have continued to operate† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). When the COPR was ub the process of disposal, there was little or no concern for the environmental and human health risks that would occur as a result of the distribution of COPR outside the plant. The potentially exposed populations were defined by onsite and surrounding land use. â€Å"Exposures to chromium in COPR were assumed to occur via inhalation of suspended soil particulates, dermal contact with soil, and incidental soil ingestion† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). The data from the site surveys were used in site-specific risk assessments to quantify exposures. Chapter nine verified that the there were 42 properties affect by the exposure and toxicity assessments (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). There were many samples taken. Between 1986 and 1989 â€Å"a total of 2,138 surface and subsurface soil samples, 31 groundwater samples from monitoring wells located at 7 sites, 33 ambient air samples, 19 surface-water and 11 sediment samples, and 8 building wall wipe samples were collected and analyzed during the RI† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). Surface water and soil samples were also taken in the risk assessments. The assessments confirmed that there was indeed a problem and that a remedial was needed. The risk characterization showed that something needed to be done and remediation was needed for these current vacant lots. Results verified that the exposure and toxicity assessment had a high toxicity in the soil and carcinogenic that people were exposed to in the air, soil, and water. Evidenced proved that indoor dust was highly toxic and yielded a link between the dust and chromium levels. High levels of chromium were definite in all tests. The carcinogenic compounds of chromium were not proven in one, though, done on lab rats. The problem was passed around inside the company but was eventually managed and is still being handled today. The implications of these assessments have changed with every assessment done. Each assessment could test even more accurately. The final assessment was that there is a need to concentrated effort on the chromium left from these sites. Each step was precisely performed and accurately carried out. Limitations arose during the first step of identification. Again, the second step dose-response was limited by the research that had been done on chromium. As soon as they would file an assessment, there would be a new more accurate test available that would make the report inaccurate. The limitations and newly surfaced assessments left unanswered questions and concerns with the assessments. This 12-year period transformed a time of new developments in testing. With the availability of these new tests it brought the need for more assessments. The final assessments show that cleanup is needed and will require extensive planning to make it happen. The assessments were designed to discover the results of how much chromium was in the area. The effect on the health of humans and the environment was also correlated within the assessments. Over the 12-year period, the assessments were evaluated and fulfilled to their fullest potential. According to Paustenbach (2002), in Chapter 9, â€Å"the cost of the 12-year study equaled 10 million dollars in research† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). Results can be seen in the undertaking of the removal of soil in these areas and taken to a hazardous material dump in Canada. By lowering the levels of chromium in these areas, like the wetlands, they have save a unique environment in America. According to the Njdep Site Remediation Program (2012) the cleanup in these areas are ongoing and the testing is being posted on this web site to show what the levels are in these areas (NJDEP, 2012). The people living and working in the particular areas will most benefit from the program. The people can stay in tuned with the daily operations, along with the level ratings, through the website. Although the study was lengthy, â€Å"the studies conducted have lowered the liabilities by almost 1 billion dollars† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). The practical implications of the risk assessment were that there would have to be a remedial cleanup. â€Å"A review of chromium toxicology suggested that valence differentiation in the environment would be key to correctly calculating health-protective cleanup standards and maximizing the benefit of each dollar committed to remediation† (Paustenbach, 2002, p. 1). The specific goal approach was practical because it addressed the issues and came up with a plan of action. Many big companies do not have a plan of action and this hinders the process to be successful in the remediation process. Another reason for the practicality of the risk assessment was that they were able to budget for how much the remedial and the cleanup would cost. Many companies are unable to see have a plan of action at times like this and cannot for see the cleanup and the cost associated with it. A cost benefit analysis is important when looking at a risk assessment. The cost and benefit analysis reviews the cost and benefit or cleaning up an area. Most analytically reviewed references monetary gains and loses. Looking at the cost and benefits of both scenarios will help decide whether to clean the area or leave it alone. When looking at a CBA there are four different areas that must be looked at: first the gross disproportion, the sensitivity analysis, annualisation, and discounting. Gross disproportion is basically a factor when deciding if control measures should be used; if the costs are not grossly disproportionate from the benefits the control measures must be used. Sensitivity analysis is taking one or more of the factors and varying them to see if the outcome would be any different, this is used to show that control measures will be unsuccessful or that all that can be done has been. Then the annualisation, when the costs are worked out year by year with the varying changes in money, is done by looking at the discounting numbers. Discounting is a deeper look into the different cost and benefits of each year, this looks at maintenance costs and other cost that may be incurred. The main problem with the CBA is that there are no set criteria for any of the sections, it is left up to those doing the CBA and those fighting the results must take it to court and the court decides. Have set criteria listed for each aspect will help clarify what needs to be done. A CBA can be very beneficial to the decision of what needs to be done, it just needs a little more work to be more concise. The importance in a risk analysis can be witnessed in the review and evaluation of the risk assessment. The risk assessment of the chromium-contaminated soils in New Jersey; the 12-year assessment proved many points. Such an extensive assessment demonstrated an area of strength and weakness within the risk assessment. The risk assessment is made up of four parts, first identifying the hazard, then looking at the dose response assessment; this is followed by the exposure assessment and the risk characterization. Within the risk assessment of the chromium-contaminated soils illustrated that there would be marked improvement with a remedial clean-up of the area. While it may not have been an easy decision, due to the fact, that the CBA has no set criteria. The risk analysis was conducted for 12 years to ensure human safety when living and working within the area; the 12 year study also helped form future risk analysis studies.

Diffusion Coefficient of 2m NACL in Water

Diffusion Coefficient of 2m NACL in Water This experiment aims to determine the diffusion coefficient of a liquid mixture, sodium chloride solution, in de-ionized water. This is done through the use of a honeycomb diffusion cell which consists of 121 vertical capillaries which are 5mm long and 1mm in diameter. Ficks Law of Diffusion is used in this experiment to calculate the diffusion coefficient of sodium chloride solution in de-ionized water. The change in concentration of the sodium chloride in the de-ionized water is measured by using the conductivity meter, since sodium chloride dissociates in water. The calculated value of diffusion coefficient was compared with the literature value derived from Eletrochemistry textbook, and the difference in values will be discussed. Some assumptions are being made to make the calculations much simpler. The concentration at the lower end of the diffusion cell is assumed to be equal to 2M, which is the molarity of the sodium chloride solution. The concentration at the upper end of the diffusion cell is taken to be effectively zero. Certain factors that affect diffusion and the calculation of the diffusion coefficient are also discussed to understand more about their effects on diffusion. However, this experiment did not place emphasis on these factors, and these factors are assumed to be negligible in the experiment as steps have been taken to minimise their presence in this experiment. Objective The objective of this experiment is to determine the diffusion coefficient of 2M Sodium Chloride solution in de-ionised water. Principles 1. Diffusion Molecular diffusion, or simply known as diffusion, is a spontaneous process that results in the net transport of molecules from a region of higher concentration to another region of lower concentration. This net transport is a result of the intrinsic thermal energy present in all molecules at temperatures above absolute zero. The phenomenon of diffusion can be mathematically described using Ficks Law (or Ficks 1st Law), which states that for a two component system consisting of A and B, the molar flux, Ni , of the individual component (i = A, B) is defined as: (1) where D is the diffusion coefficient , Ci is the concentration of component i, and is the concentration gradient in the z-direction. The negative sign indicates the flow of transport is from region of higher concentration to region of lower concentration. In the context of this experiment, Ficks law in one-dimension is considered, and there is no mean flow of mixture in the experimental set-up. Therefore, Equation (1) for the molar flux is valid for this experiment. 2. Experimental Set-up A diffusion cell is an instrument that is used to study the diffusion of liquid or gaseous mixtures. The diffusion cell used in this experiment consists of a honeycomb of 121 accurately dimensioned vertical capillaries that are 5mm long and 1mm wide in diameter. This is to restrict the diffusion to a one -dimensional diffusion. To prepare the diffusion cell for use, a small volume of concentrated solution is first placed on one side of the honeycomb, whilst the other side consists of a large volume of pure solvent (de-ionized water). The concentration within the larger volume will increase gradually as diffusion of the solute occurs. This change in concentration is monitored closely with a conductivity sensor and meter. To ensure a uniform concentration within the larger volume, the mixture is continuously stirred with a magnetic stirrer. (Figure 1) The concentration at the lower end of the tube is in fact constant and is equal to the molarity of the solution. The concentration at the upper end of the tube is effectively zero (Figure 2). Honeycomb structure with capillaries Concentration of solution outside tube is zero Concentration of solution inside tube is 2M NaCl Therefore it can be said that: (2) where M is the molarity of the solution and L is the length of the tube. The amount of sodium chloride diffusing per unit time from the capillary is approximately: (3) where d is the diameter of the capillary, n is the number of capillaries and L is the length of the capillary. Outside the tube, since sodium chloride is able to dissociate in water into sodium and chloride ions, the accumulation of the sodium chloride salt in the de-ionized water can be easily calculated by the measurement of change in the conductivity k of the solution with respect to time t. The amount of sodium chloride accumulating per unit time outside the vessel is approximately: (4) where V is the volume of water in outer vessel and CM is the conductivity change for unit molarity change and has the value of 0.41ÃŽÂ ©-1M-1 for the solution used in this experiment. Mass balance requires that the amount of sodium chloride going out of the capillaries must be equals to the amount of sodium chloride accumulated in the de-ionized water. (5) Therefore, (6) By rearranging Equation (6), (7) All the terms in equation (7) are constants and known, except for . However, to determine, we can plot a graph of conductivity as a function of time and find the gradient, which is equals to. Thus, by plotting conductivity as a function of time, the value of the diffusion coefficient D for the sodium chloride solution can be determined. Equipment and Materials One litre vessel with cell holder (Figure 3) Magnetic stirrer with variable speed (Figure 3) Magnetic stir bar (Figure 3) Diffusion cell (Figure 4) Conductivity meter (Figure 5) Conductivity leads Stopwatch (Figure 6) A bottle of de-ionized water (Figure 7) 50 ml beaker (Figure 8) 2M sodium chloride solution in a 100ml glass bottle (Figure 9) Experimental Procedure The one litre vessel was filled with de-ionized water up to 1cm below the graduation (black) mark. The magnetic stirrer was set to the lowest setting. The conductivity meter was connected to the electrodes and then switched on. The reading on the conductivity meter was noted to be less than 10-4ÃŽÂ ©-1 (1 ÃŽÂ ©-1 = 1 Siemens). The diffusion cell was completely filled with 2M (molarity) sodium chloride solution (116.9g NaCl/litre). Excess solution on top of the capillaries and on the sides was wiped off gently with a soft tissue. The diffusion cell was clamped in its position with the top of the capillaries lying parallel with the graduation mark on the vessel. The vessel was carefully filled to the graduaton mark with the provided de-ionized water bottle. The nozzle of the bottle was aimed away from the capillaries and towards the wall of the vessel, so as to minimise the turbulence caused. The timer was started immediately when the vessel was filled to the graduation mark. The reading on the conductivity was noted down at the same time. The conductivity readings were noted down every 200 seconds till 3600s. After the end of Run 1, the solution in the vessel and diffusion cell was disposed. Both the vessel and the diffusion were washed thoroughly with de-ionized water. Steps (1) to (10) were repeated to get another set of readings for Run 2. Results The results are tabulated in Table 1. Questions Plot conductivity (k) versus time (t) and determine the slope of the best fit straight line through the points. From the plot, the gradient of slope of the best fit straight line for Run 1 and Run 2 are 4 x 10-8 and 3 x 10-8 respectively. Determine the diffusion coefficient of 2M NaCl using equation (6). To use equation (6), we need the value for . The value for is determined from the graph. We will take the average of the gradient of the 2 slopes we get from the graph. = = 3.5 x 10 -8 Where, V = 1 Litre = 0.001 m3 L = 5mm = 0.005 m CM = 0.41ÃŽÂ ©-1M-1 n = 121 M = 2M d = 1mm = 0.001 m (gradient of slope) = 3.5 x 10^-8 (ÃŽÂ ©s)-1 For = 3.5 x 10^-8 (ÃŽÂ ©s)-1, How does your value(s) compare with literature values? Comment on sources of error. Table 2 is obtained from the literature of an Electrochemistry textbook. The data in the table are obtained by various experimental techniques, such as tracer diffusion determination. The diffusion coefficient of Na+ and Cl- ions in water, extracted from relevant data in Table 2, are found to be 1.33 x 10-5 cm2/s and 2.03 x 10-5 cm2/s respectively. These ionic diffusion coefficients do not take into consideration the effect of solvation of the water molecules on the ionic species. From Table 2, both the sodium ion and chloride ion have different diffusion coefficient from each other. However sodium chloride diffuses with only one coefficient, therefore we need to compute the average diffusion coefficient, DNaCl. From the equation: (8) j1 = j2 = Dc1 = [] c1 The average diffusion coefficient of the electrolyte NaCl , DNaCl = 2 (9) (1/DNa+ + 1/DCl- ) = 2 (1/1.33 + 1/2.03) x 105 = 1.607 x 10-5 cm2/s = 1.607 x 10-9 m2/s Percentage difference between experimental and literature values of diffusion coefficient = (2.246 1.607)/(1.607) x 100% = + 39.8% The experimental diffusion coefficient values of 2.246 x 10-9 m2/s is slightly higher than the literature value of 1.607 x 10-9 m2/s, and this could be due to some possible sources of error (Will be further discussed in the next section). The calculated value (DNaCl) based on Table 2, equation (8) and (9) does not take into consideration the effect of hydration of the water molecules on the ionic species. The phenomenon of solute-solvent interaction between sodium chloride and water is called hydration. The solute and the solvent both interact to form a new species, which is the actual species diffusing in the solvent Hence, it should be expected that our experiment value will be different from the literature value (DNaCl), as hydration do play a part in the experiment. In addition, the high concentration of the sodium chloride solution (2M) may result in convection, which will also affect the rate of diffusion. (Will be further under Discussions) Possible Sources of Error S/N Possible Sources of Error Solution 1. If thewalls of the capillary tubes arewet, or if the diffusion tube is filled up too slowly or wrongly, air bubbles may form underthe capillariesin the honeycomb structure. The bubbles can significantly impede diffusion through the capillaries, affecting the rate of diffusion. Ensure that no air bubbles are formed in or under the honeycomb structure. This can be achieved by filling the diffusion cell slowly. 2. Evaporation of water from the 1 litre vessel during the experiment could affect thevolume present in the vessel and hence diffusion coefficient would be affected, since the calculation of the diffusion coefficient involves the volume of water present in the vessel. The vessel could be covered with a cover or lid to minimise evaporation of water. 3. The stopwatch should be startedas close as possible to the instant when the water covers the surface of the capillaries. This is because significant changes in concentration can occur at this pointintime due to the steep concentration gradient between the 2 solutions. However, human reaction time will result in some delay. Have one person to fill up the vessel until the honeycomb structure is fully submerged in water, while another person looks from the side and starts the stopwatch once the honeycomb structure is fully submerged. This will minimise the human reaction time. 4. The solution may not be well-stirred enough, thus resulting in a higher concentration at the diffusion surface than the rest of the solution. Have more than one conductivity sensor at various locations or depth along the vessel enables us to get more accurate conductivity readings by averaging the values obtained. 5. The needle was fluctuating at some of the instant when readings were supposed to be taken, making it hard to determine the value to be recorded. By the time the needle stabilised, it has already exceeded the stipulated time (e.g. 1000s), and the reading obtained from the meter would not reflect the conductivity of the solution at that particular time but instead for another timing. A data logging system should be used where signals from the conductivity meter used for the diffusion cell can be recorded into a computer at fixed regular time interval. This helps to eliminate human error from poor judgment in the reading of results as well as allows for a more accurate reading of the conductivity. 6. The vessel may not be thoroughly cleaned from previous experiment by other students, therefore leaving sodium chloride residue at the wall of the vessel. This may add to the conductivity of the solution during the diffusion experiment when the vessel is filled with de-ionised water and therefore lead to an error when calculating the diffusion coefficient of sodium chloride. Clean the equipments thoroughly once more with de-ionised water to ensure that no residues are present on the equipment. 7. Small air bubbles could have been trapped at the opening of the capillaries of the diffusion cell before the start of the experiment. This would affect the diffusion rate of the sodium chloride solution. A porous plate can be used. It enables the solute and solvent to pass through freely, minimizing the chance where the molecules are stuck at the pores or in the capillaries. 8. Convection occurred in the experiment is a major factor that will affect the accuracy of our experiment. Effort has been made to minimized convection. However, the extent in which convection has affected our experiment values is unknown. The rotation of the magnetic stirrer could introduce convection currents in the water. The addition of dye to the vessel containing watercan be used to determine whether the magnetic stirrer is causing too much convection. This should be done before the commencement of the actual experiment to ensure minimal or no convection are present. The dye should never be used during the commencement of the experiment as it might interfere with the diffusion rate of sodium chloride solution. 9. The changes in the conductivity may be so small such that the analog meter is not able to detect the changes. The use of an analog meter also depends on how the person judges the values of the readings when the needle is in between the markings on the meter. This might result in random errors. A digital conductivity meter or data logger should be used to minimise the random errors that might be introduced if an analog meter is used. A digital conductivity meter or data logger would be more able to reflect the small changes in conductivity of the solution, giving us readings that are more accurate and more precise. 10. The temperature of the sodium chloride solution in the diffusion cell and the water in the vessel is assumed to be the same and constant throughout the experiment. However, this may not be true due to the fact that the experimental setup is exposed to the surroundings, thus it is very difficult to ensure constant temperature within the system, unlike the case of a water bath. Temperature, however, does affect the diffusion coefficient. Conduct the experiment in an enclosed environment to minimise contact with the surroundings. Measure the temperature of the water and sodium chloride solution constantly to ensure constant and identical temperature throughout the experiment. Discussions Solute-Solvent interaction (hydration) In the experiment, the species that are diffusing are not just pure sodium and chloride ions. In fact, sodium chloride and water interact to give a new species which is the actual species diffusing in the solvent. The effect of hydration can be studied by using the following flux equation: (10) j1 = D0 (1 + ) c1 (11) j1 = (1 + ) c1 where D0 is the new diffusion coefficient, ÃŽÂ ¼ is the solvent viscosity, R0 is the solute radius, and Ɔ1 is the activity coefficient. Equation (10) and (11) can be affected by hydration in two ways. These two factors are the hydrated species radius R0, and the concentration dependence of diffusion. From equation (11), the solute radius R0 is that of the hydrated species. This can be related to the true solute radius R0 by the following equation: à Ã¢â€š ¬ R03 = à Ã¢â€š ¬ (R0)3 + n() (12) Where VH2O is the molar volume of water and n is the hydration number. The third column of Table 3 shows the values obtained from equation (12). If we were to take the values of Na+ (0.5) and Cl- (-0.7) and compute the average radius R0, the radius obtained will be a smaller value as compared to the case when no hydration is considered. Therefore, we will obtain a larger D0 if we substitute a smaller R0 into equation (11). This explains why we get a larger D0 from experimental results as compared to literature values. Convection In our experiment, the sodium chloride solution has a molarity of 2M, which is a concentrated solution. Such concentrated solution may cause convection in our experiment, thus affecting the rate of diffusion. Total mass transported = Mass transported by diffusion + Mass transported by convection (13) The total mass flux n1, (mass transported per unit area per unit time): n1 = j1a + c1va where j1a is the diffusion flux and c1va represents the convection. From equation (7): (7) D = If we add in the convection term, it becomes (7.1) D = + (convection) From equation (7.1), we can see that the presence of convection in the experiment will mean a bigger value for diffusion coefficient since the total mass transported is now dependent not solely on diffusion only. Convection does play a part in the transporting of mass. In order to examine whether the effect of convection is significant in our experiment, we can carry the experiment with sodium chloride solution at lower concentrations. The diffusion coefficient obtained will then be compared against literature values. If the degree of difference between experimental results and literature values is similar to that of using 2M sodium chloride solution, then we can say that the effect of convection is negligible in our experiment, and vice versa. Temperature dependence of diffusion coefficient In our experiment, the temperature of the water in the vessel and the sodium chloride solution is assumed to be the same and constant throughout the experiment. The dependence of diffusion coefficient on temperature in liquids can be determined using the Stokes- Einstein equation: (14) where T1 and T2 denote temperature 1 and 2 respectively D is the diffusion coefficient is the dynamic viscosity of the solvent From the equation, we can see that temperature does affect the diffusivity of the sodium chloride ions. In order to ensure that this problem does not affect our experiment, we should continuously measure the temperature of the water in the vessel and the sodium chloride solution to ensure identical and constant temperature throughout the experiment. Conclusions The aim of the experiment was to determine the diffusion coefficient of 2M Sodium Chloride solution in de-ionised water. The purpose of the experiment is achieved through the use of diffusion cell and the conductivity meter to study the change in concentration along the vessel at regular intervals. The value of our experimental result is of the order of 10-9 m2/s, which is common for liquid mixtures. This implies that the method of using honeycomb diffusion cell and measuring the change in conductivity to calculate the accumulation of the sodium chloride in the de-ionized water is appropriate for the determination of diffusion in a liquid mixture in this experiment. However, one should be aware that the conductivity method is only applicable for solute which fully dissociates in water. Solutes which do not dissociate in water will not give any changes in conductivity of the de-ionized water. It was found that the diffusion coefficient determined in the experiment is 39.8% larger than the literature values. This is most likely due to the fact that the literature values did not consider the effect of hydration on the sodium and chloride ions. The effect of hydration tends to increase the rate of diffusion, and this was the case for sodium chloride solution. Therefore, if we were to take into consideration the effect of hydration on the ions in our calculation of the literature values, the diffusion coefficient calculated will be close to our experimental value. We have discussed that convection is an important factor that might affect the reliability and accuracy of the experimental results. Due to the limitations of the experiment procedure, we were unable to determine the extent in which convection affects the experiment. Dyes could have been used to detect the presence of any significant convection currents due to the rotation of the magnetic stirrer. This experiment has showed that it is very difficult to calculate the actual diffusion coefficient very accurately using mathematical models and scientific concepts that we currently have. Due to the fact that the values of diffusion coefficients for liquid mixtures are very small, of the order of 10-9 m2/s, any slight error during the experiment will result in a big difference from the actual value. This difference might be small in magnitude, but the application of this value may have large implications in actual situations, such as in chemical plants. Therefore, much effort should be utilised for future research works to accurately determine the actual diffusion coefficients under different situations and conditions.

Tescos Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

Tescos Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Introduction Tesco Plc is considered as the king of supermarkets in Britain. Its business is related to the small grocery stores under the Tesco Metro brand name, big supermarkets outside cities (Tesco Extra) and 24-hour stores. Its stores are not limited to food sector but also to provide books, CD/DVD/mini-discs, hi-fi and household appliances, household equipment, flowers, wine, apparel and many other items. In January 2003, Tesco takes over its key competitor in the British Territory, T S Stores. Currently, it employed 270,800 fulltime employees worldwide. Tesco has adapted rapid technological changes to boost its sales. Such as its on-line sales site Tesco.com, is now heavily contributing to its profits in recent years. The Group currently holds almost 1,988 stores in the UK and 1265 stores outside UK (Annual Report, 2007). Today, its market capitalization has reached  £36.60 billion. (Reuters, 2007) Tesco plc is a British based grocery and general merchandise international retail chain. It is the largest British retailer by global sales and domestic market share with profits exceeding  £2 billion. In 2008, the company achieved German retail giant Metro AG to make the third largest retailer in the world, the first movement among the top five since 2003. Originally specializing in food, has diversified into areas such as clothing , consumer electronics , consumer financial services , retail selling and renting DVDs , CDs , music downloads , Internet service , consumer telecoms , consumer insurance , consumer dental plans and software . Part 1: Project Objectives and overall research approach. Tesco Background. In 1919, Tesco Plc was established by Jack Cohen, by utilising the bonus which he achieved for his services in the World War I army. Then in 1924, he purchased a tea consignment from the company TE Stockwell. He decided to put the initial three alphabets of TE Stockwell and the initials of his name Cohen collectively to name his brand TESCO. In 1929 Cohen opened the very first Tesco store in Edgware, London. Originally, Cohens formulated the strategy of Piling it high, selling it cheap. Despite the fact that this strategy assisted Tesco in attracting a great amount of consumers, it also assisted Tesco in branding itself as a store for average class consumers and even earned an image as a low-end store. When Imperial Tobacco Company decided not to acquire Tesco because the company thought that the deal could damage its reputation, after considering of buying the company, Tescos brand image was further thrashed. Throughout the seventies, numerous analysts recommended the Tesco to transform the name of the company. Tesco obtained several companies during the seventies such as Williamsons, Burnards, John Irwins, Harrow Stores, Victor Value and Charles Phillips. However, all these businesses were not incorporated appropriately with Tesco, and a large number of these stores were not well organised. Furthermore, Tesco had small and poorly equipped stores as well. The only competitive edge Tesco had was the price. The products that were available at the store seemed to be of ordinary. Due to the rise in the income of customers in Britain, the customers did not want to look for bargains. They were now seeking high quality products. In order to cater these changing demands of the customer, Tesco decided to close down its numerous stores to focus on superstores to provide improved quality. Brief data Aims and Objectives. Tesco is one of the biggest food retailers in the world, functioning over 3,200 stores. The assembly is furthermore one of the biggest online food retailers. The objective of this study is to investigate the Tescos business ethics and corporate social responsibility. The business analysis will be conducted through PEST analysis and SWOT analysis. The target is to have an analysis of Tescos corporate social responsibility policies including business ethics and their impact on its business practice and its key stakeholders. Industry Activities. Tesco is one of the biggest food retailers in the world and biggest food retailer in the UK. It functions round 3,300 stores. In supplement to food, it furthermore functions in the non food segment. The company functions through multiple shop formats encompassing Extra, Superstore, Metro, Express and hypermarkets. The company functions in three geographical segments: the UK, Rest of Europe and Asia. The organisation is one of the biggest online retailers in the world. Tesco has a long period strategy for development, founded on four key parts: development in the Core UK, to expand by increasing internationally, to be as powerful in non-food as in food and to pursue clients into new retailing services. Tesco is undoubtedly an entire shopping centre in itself. Everything is literally discovered in one roof. No longer restricted to food shop pieces, it boasts services that would permit a consumer to avail of everything in one stop. Besides the additional trading of publications, cds, digital melodies, videos, blossoms, sport and gardening they furthermore supply economic services (e.g. borrowing cards, borrowings, mortgages, savings) protection services (e.g. vehicle, house, life, travel) telecoms services (e.g. Internet, residence and wireless phone) and wholesome household services (through its Tesco eDiets and wholesome household club) .Tesco has evolved diverse types of Tesco shops extending from Tesco Extra, Metro Tesco and Tesco Express in its extending quest to correctly address the desires of their diverse clients when and where they desire it. According to information gleaned from the web, the British retail group Tesco returns in recent weeks, an image blurring. It symbolizes the many facets of the reputation of a company facing a diverse audience, especially in times of crisis. Like many entrepreneurs, the boss of the group, Sir Terry Leahy, is firmly committed to the greenway, including offering reusable bags, which allowed him to avoid the production of 2 billion bags plastic. Tesco is also involved in the Global Social Compliance Programme (Global Social Compliance, GSCP), an initiative of distribution groups, which involves Carrefour. Created in 2006, the GSCP is to converge in terms of their supply chain standards for social audits, share best practices and contribute to the improvement of working conditions. The platform intends to issue a single message, consistent and shared based on ILO standards and the UN to all suppliers. She met 26 companies including Carrefour. GSCPs Advisory Council is composed of the International Federation of Human Rights, the UNI Commerce, CSR Asia and the UN Office for International Partnerships. Although this initiative is not under ground, it remains unknown to the general public. In addition, the group Tesco, which has 280,000 employees in Britain, has actively supported Marie Curie Care Centre, giving him 6.3 million pounds, twice more than expected. This sum is intended to fund over 315,000 hours of nursing care to more than 5,600 terminally ill patients and their families, all at home. Some  £ 500,000 has been collected outside of Tesco stores, 2 million pounds were lifted further by the store staff,  £ 500,000 by the distribution centre employees and the remainder from the rest of the group. The Tesco Charity Trust. The Tesco Charity Trust has brought its side 20% of the amount raised by staff. Yet, at virtually the same period, the website of UNI Global Union deals with social conflict in a Tesco supermarket in Douglas, Ireland, in which the union intervenes Mandate. Moreover, Greenpeace believes that Tesco, Marks and Spencer but are complicit in the Amazonian deforestation by importing Brazilian beef. This breeding would have dramatic consequences for biodiversity and global warming. According to an AFP dispatch, other multinationals, major commodity in this region, are singled out: Adidas, BMW, Carrefour, Ford, Honda, Gucci, IKEA, Kraft, Toyota and Wal-Mart. Faced with such a stream of positive news or disturbing, it appears that a company that cares about its reputation must advance on all fronts at the same time taking into account all its stakeholders, the difficulty being that they are extremely diverse for a group the size of Tesco. Part 2: Information gathering and accounting/business techniques. This study is established on both primary as well as secondary data. The study methodology utilised is the review of diverse literatures which are accessible online. This study engaged investigations from the brief reports, items from periodicals, and online material accessible on the web. Using the methodology checked in preceding investigations, this study started with a very broad review of the literature. The outcome and deductions are founded on the secondary data. The methodology utilised for the purpose of this study is established on the secondary data. This study is more or less founded on the review of publications and the reasonings are drawn on the cornerstone of genuine assets recorded in the references. Financial facts and numbers will be accumulated from the yearly accounts of Tesco. Primary data is mainly obtained through the annual report of Tesco 2010 which is available online. Primary data assemblage is essential when a investigator will not find the data required in secondary sources. Market researchers are involved in prime facts and figures about demographic/socioeconomic characteristics, attitudes/opinions/interests, awareness/knowledge, aims, motivation, and behavior. Three basic means of obtaining prime facts and figures are observation, surveys, and experiments. The alternative will be leveraged by the environment of the difficulty and by the accessibility of time and money. Examples encompass reviews, meetings, facts, and ethnographic research. Agood investigator knows how to use both prime and secondary causes in her writing and to integrate them in a cohesive fashion. An important source of primary data is survey research. The various kinds of surveys (personal, posted letters, computer, and telephone), are described ahead. Experiments are another significant source of data for trading research tasks. The environment of experimentation, the types of untested designs, and the uses and limitations of this procedure of getting data are furthermore clarified ahead. Experiments are conducted in either a laboratory setting (most advertising exact replicate pretests) or in a field setting (test marketing). Electronic and computer technologies have revolutionized both these environments, which are recounted later. Conducting prime research is a helpful ability to come by as it can substantially supplement study in lesser causes, such as periodicals, publications, or books. Primary study is an very good ability to learn as it can be useful in a kind of backgrounds encompassing business, personal, and academic. The secondary data that are accessible are somewhat quick and cheap to get, especially now that computerized bibliographic search services and databases are available. The various sources of the lesser facts and figures and how they can be obtained and utilised are described ahead. Tesco provides an inclusive offer. It describes Tescos ambition to cater its customers of top, middle and low income in the same stores. Tesco has invented a reward system known as the Club-card which collects the essential consumer data that is used to provide specific service to cater the needs and potential wants of consumer. When shoppers sign up for the Club-card, they initially submit their profile which includes gender, age and address. Tesco could divide their customers into segments by relying on these aspects. The information of the goods purchased is instantly uploaded into Tescos database the minute the consumer purchases it. Product information was used to sell cross-sell additional products and services such as delivery of groceries. Beginning in 1997 when Terry Leahy took over as CEO, Tesco began marketing itself to using the phrase the way to Tesco to describe the purposes, values, principles, and goals of the foundation of the company. This phrase became the standard marketing speak for Tesco as it expands nationally and internationally under Leahys leadership, implying a change in the company to focus on people, customers and employees. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be defined as the active and voluntary contribution to improving social, economic and environmental factors by companies, usually with the aim of improving its competitive position and its value . The performance evaluation system throughout the organization in these areas is known as the triple bottom line. Under this concept of administration and management encompasses a set of practices, strategies and business management systems that seek a new balance between economic, social and environmental. The history of CSR can be traced back to the nineteenth century under the Cooperatives and Associations who sought to reconcile business efficiency with social principles of democracy, self-help, community support and distributive justice. Its leading exponents are now companies social economy , by definition Socially Responsible Companies. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) aims for excellence within the company, taking with special attention to people and their working conditions and the quality of their production processes. Corporate social responsibility is the set of actions that take into account the companies so that their activities have a positive impact on society and affirm their principles and values that govern both in their own internal methods and processes in its relationship with other actors. CSR is a voluntary initiative. It is the conscious and consistent commitment to comply fully with the mission of the company both internally, and externally, considering the expectations of all participants in the economic, human and social environment, demonstrating respect for ethical values, people, communities and the environment and to build the common good. The responsible management of the company implies that this act reconcile (balance point) between business interests and expectations that it is the community (particularly its stakeholders-stakeholders) The main ethical responsibilities of business with the workers and the community are: Serve the society with useful and fair. Create wealth in the most effective way possible. Respect human rights to decent working conditions that promote health and safety and human development and professional workers. Ensure the continuity of the company and, if possible, to achieve reasonable growth. Respect the environment wherever possible avoiding any kind of pollution minimizing waste generation and more efficient use of natural resources and energy. Enforced laws, regulations, rules and customs, while respecting the legitimate contracts and commitments. Ensure equitable distribution of wealth generated. Business ethics and therefore business morality generally result from an individuals own moral standards in the context of the political and cultural environment in which the organization is operating. Ethics are founded on moral principles that are themselves grounded in effects. This holds true whether you subscribe to the idea that a moral judgment must fulfill only formal conditions that are universal and prescriptive or whether you think it must also meet a material condition for the welfare of society as a whole. Social responsibility, another term for good citizenship, means producing sound products or reliable services that dont threaten the environment and contributing positively to the social, political and economic health of society. It also means compensating employees fairly and treating them justly, regardless of the cultural environment in which you operate. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept that describes the activities of companies beyond revenue; the term is increasingly used to describe the role of any business in society. CSR involves a wide commitment by companies to social health and the common good and policies that support them. This involves not only the products a company produces, but also be a good corporate citizen in terms of employees hired and how to find them. It also has to do with protecting the environment and participating in the local community and the wider culture in which the company engages in business. Broadly speaking, CSR has three key components: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The basic values, ethics, policies, and practices of a companys business; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The voluntary contributions made by a company to community development; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The management of environmental and social issues within the value chain by the company and its business partners-from the acquisition and production of raw materials, through the welfare of staff, to product sale, use, and disposal. Part 3: Results, Analysis, Conclusions and Recommendations. This part discusses the corporate social responsibility initiatives of Tesco and its impact on the internal and external environment of the company. It details the activities undertaken by Tescos management and employees to contribute to the benefit of the society and the community in which the company operates. It also discusses the active role played by Tesco in protecting and regenerating the environment and in extending the CSR initiatives to its suppliers. It also highlights a few criticisms against Tesco including polluting the environment in some countries and not adhering to its CSR standards. Issues: Examine a companys responsibility towards the society Understand the importance of social and environmental issues Determine how a companys stand on social and environmental issues can contribute to enhancing the companys image Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility In the last decade, a large number of companies have recognized the benefits of incorporating basic practices and social responsibility policies. Their experiences have been backed by a series of empirical studies that show that the RS has positive impacts on business values, measured in several ways. Companies have also been encouraged to adopt or expand efforts of RS as a result of pressure from consumers, providers, community, investors, activist organizations and other stakeholders. As a result of studies in recent years, the RS has increased dramatically in companies of all sizes and sectors that have developed innovative strategies. These benefits are numerous and can be measured both quantitatively and qualitatively, is also found that the company may enjoy greater loyalty from consumers, employees work more comfortable, the shares have greater stability, and saves costs potential legal and administrative sanctions. The advantages found are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Financial Performance Improvement The study published in 1999, Business and Society Review, showed that 300 large corporations found that companies that made a public commitment to honor their code of ethics, performance showed a three times higher than those who did not, on the parameter value added in the market. In another recent study by Harvard University found that companies with a balanced action between employees and shareholders showed a growth rate four times higher and employment growth rate eight times higher than those of companies focused only to shareholders. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reducing Operating Costs There are several initiatives that can help a company reduce its operating costs and increase productivity, particularly those related to the environment and the workplace. By way of example are: programs for balance between personal life and work to help reduce absenteeism and increase employee retention as well as allow companies to reduce costs in recruitment and training or retraining initiatives aimed at eliminating scrap costs and generates revenue through the sale of materials. There are several practical examples of significant environmental savings. For example, Dow Chemical Co. and the National Resource Defense Council established an alliance in order to reduce the production of 26 toxic chemicals to only one. For this reason they have managed to save 5.4 million a year, and as an added benefit the quality of their products. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Improved brand image and reputation In the global economy, brand image and reputation are among the most valued strengths. Responsible marketing practices, by nature, are highly visible to consumers and have the potential to strengthen or weaken the publics opinion about a company or brand. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Capital Markets The latter continue to grow at high rates in most developed countries have begun to grow in developing countries. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Innovation Socially responsible organizations have an innate tendency to innovation in products and processes, which helps them to anticipate events allowing lead changes in the composition of their products, improve quality and human security of their production processes, improve security and quality of domestic activity, ahead of the competition in the launch of new products, the implementation of different types of future legal regulations, etc. Corporate social responsibility: the internal dimension The views that are considered to fall within the internal dimension, the company has under Social Responsibility (SR), are: human resources management, health and safety at work, adapt to change and environmental impact and management of natural resources. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human resources management: When it comes to RS the first thing you think is that a company be socially responsible before the society or community in which it resides, it must be with the employees taking into account that one of the biggest challenges is to have people trained and sense of belonging in this context the company should include measures such as lifelong learning, improving the information on the company, a better balance between work, family and distraction, greater human resource diversity, equal pay and prospects opportunities for women, participation in profits or shareholder of the company and the consideration of employability and safety in the workplace. Another way to be socially responsible is when you discriminate against persons because of race, color or sex, responsibility and accounting practices that help meet the countrys economic policies such as employment generation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Health and safety in the workplace: Usually the health and safety have been addressed from a legal standpoint, but now companies, governments and sectoral organizations seek new ways to penetrate and promote this issue, especially now that both companies and consumers are more sensitive to values and ethical issues related to the production process. This and other practices such as SA8000 Certification which will be detailed in the next article help the company to be socially responsible. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adapting to change: Any country suffers when companies are restructuring because of manpower cuts can generate economic and social crisis of great magnitude, but the community suggests that a restructuring from the point of view socially responsible means to balance and take into account the interests and concerns of all affected by the changes and decisions. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Management of environmental impacts and natural resources: The corporate social responsibility is closely related to the environmental impact generated by the proposed objectives and that directly affect communities. Therefore the environmental field can be considered as a solid framework for the promotion of corporate social responsibility. Corporate social responsibility: the external dimension The company should be socially responsible with local communities, business partners, suppliers, customers, employees, shareholders and the environment among others. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Local communities: The corporate social responsibility with local communities to be expressed in: 1. Integration of the companies in their local environment. 2. Contribution to community development in terms of employment generation. 3. Establishment of training commitments of the community, environmental conservation, and procurement of socially excluded people, caring for children in daycare, sponsoring cultural and sports activities at the local level, donations to charity. 4. Participation in social welfare projects. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Business partners, suppliers and consumers: Relationships with partners, suppliers and consumers are especially important for businesses, thereby reducing costs and increasing quality. The main features to be emphasized as the relationship with partners, suppliers and consumers are: 1. Large companies are both partners of the smaller companies either, as customers, suppliers, contractors and competitors. 2. Companies are aware that their social performance can be affected by the practices of their partners and suppliers throughout the production chain. 3. The companies are responsible for promoting entrepreneurship in its location, for example, tutoring, or assistance provided to small businesses for their contribution to social responsibility and reporting. They also support small businesses with venture capital, facilitating their expansion. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human rights: As for human rights companies ensure that their trading partners are respecting the values they considered essential and what is the approach to be taken and how to work in countries where there are frequent violations of human rights. Although companies establish codes of conduct for the respect of human rights, labor conditions and environmental factors must be taken into account that they are no substitute for national and international laws, nor the provincial and municipal. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Global environmental problems: Because environmental problems have reached beyond the boundaries and that companies are directly related to and with the consumption of resources in the world, it is important to begin a drive to reduce the environmental impact of its activities throughout production chain. The stakeholders perspective. In much of the twentieth century, proper responsibility for the wider impacts of business, has been social. Recently, it was recognized that the concept of stakeholders has a central role. In this perspective, each organization will have different stakeholders: for companies, their stakeholders they typically include consumers, suppliers, shareholders and staff from a wide range of other, for governments, organizations can include employers, unions and NGOs. As you increase the influence of key stakeholders-oriented companies will be the adoption of corporate responsibility deeper and more solid. The detailed discussion of these issues highlighted the following aspects: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The leadership role in promoting a set of core values in business. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The need to ensure that Corporate Social Responsibility is an integral part of the overall business à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To consider CSR as essential philosophy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The importance of follow the process properly, that is, through transparency and consultations. An analysis of stakeholders, recognize that shareholders are always among the most important stakeholders of corporations. In recent years, however, its role has been changing in two ways: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ First, for most shareholders, the importance of organizational governance has become an increasingly pressing issue, and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ second, the volume of socially responsible investment (SRI), which can be defined as investment for social goals and financial, has grown rapidly in recent years. TESCOs CSR Approach Once a year, the board of directors of Tesco Plc consider the companys strategy of corporate social responsibility and the review of the overall performance on this subject is discussed after every three months. Members of the board and the executives of the company receive review on corporate social responsibility performance, due to which the company can assess future opportunities and risks. In 2001 the company established the Corporate Responsibility committee which encompasses of cross functional executive. These executives meet several times in a year to discuss the matter of corporate social responsibility of the company. The first corporate social responsibility report was published in 2001 by the Corporate Responsibility committee. The committee used Steering Wheel framework of Tesco evaluate its accomplishment of Corporate Social Responsibility performance. Corporate Social Responsibility is a crucial part of the Tescos steering wheel framework so as to to guarantee that CSR is a crucial part of the everyday performance of the company. Environmental Responsibility Tesco has always realised that strategies that may pose harm to the environment should not be a part of the company. These sort of strategies would have a negative impact on the companys image and may result in damaging the brand name, the clients and the environment as a whole. Conserving the environment is an important part of Tescos corporate strategy as it is believed to be associated with the companys economic goal. Nevertheless, Tesco has made sure to commit itself to maintain an environment which is healthy for everyone. Tesco has made all workers to play an dynamic part in its initiatives towards healthy environmental. Energy, Water and Fuel In 1996, Tesco initiated a campaign where it provides awareness towards energy consumption. The employees were expected to play a dynamic role in it. Managers in all Tesco depots, stores and offices supervised energy consumption and put an effort in reducing waste. During 1997 and 2005, Tescos energy consumption reduced 35% per square foot. Tesco is planning to further reduce it by 5% by the year 2006. Societal Responsibility As Tesco is large in size and it has huge scale of operations, it was able to impact the society on a large scale in numerous ways, through encouragement of its staff and consumers in order to achieve social responsibility. Tesco implemented numerous programmes to achieve social responsibility. These responsibilities include fund raising, charity for a foundation and to promote education. Tesco believed that it had a key part to play in order to promote healthy food for its consumers and struggled to make sure that healthy food is accessible at reasonable charges. These inititives were not only for the UK but were made available for other countries where Tesco was originated. Communities Tesco donated one percent of its before tax profit to charity, in the form of gifts and donations. In the year 2004 and 2005, the companys total donations as charity were around 21,762,931 pound. The companys charitable trust granted donations of 878,556 pounds to local and national charitable organisations in Britain. Economic Responsibility Tesco has taken great initiatives to achieve the economic growth and development in all the localities around the world. Tesco has played a dynamic role in reducing unemployment, supply of products at reasonable prices and giving opportunities to the community to grow and expand. Regeneration Tesco deliberately moved into areas with high unemployment and low development to trigger growth, and to make the areas commercially attractive. In 6 years duration, Tesco has helped in providi

The Division of Church and Teens… Essay -- Essays Papers

The Division of Church and Teens†¦ It seems in today’s world every night on the news we see examples of high school aged Americans who are committing crimes and hurting people around them. Whether it is a school shooting, kids being busted for drugs, underage drinking, or vandalism we are seeing more examples of high school aged kids doing things that are severely looked down upon. This problem has not been resolved because we keep seeing it as a continuing issue in the news everyday. With the cutting of extracurricular budgets for schools and other organizations the availability of good programs for high school kids to participate in is declining year by year. Therefore many kids are spending their time doing unconstructive things that may lead to ill-advised behavior. Although there are thousands of explanations for this irrational behavior ranging from violence on TV to the availability of guns, a significant reason is a lack of spiritual values associated with religion and the church. However, to und erstand this reason you must recognize that by referring to spirituality and the church I am encompassing all religions. Nevertheless due to the restrictions on the length of this paper I will use specific examples and not be able to fully explore every religion. Furthermore I will be focusing in general on specific examples occurring in America because they relate better to this essays projected audience. In addition, by asserting my above statement I am also implying that all religions have â€Å"good† values and that these values are a possible solution to this increasing problem. In general this is a true statement because I believe all of the larger more populous religions reinforce stability and a given set of values ... ...assertion is contradictory to my argument because I am implying that they are related. - â€Å"Religion, parental input protect from effects of violence†. Academic Search Premier. December 10, 2003. Biotech Week. 24 February, 2004. . This article talks about how religious beliefs help to keep kids out of conduct trouble and relates to my argument because it supports my claim about teenagers avoiding bad behavior by embracing religious values. - â€Å"Town to bury first shooting victim as police pursue third suspect†. CNN.com. April 24, 1999. Cable News Network. February 24, 2004. http://www.cnn.com/US/9904/24/school.shooting.01/index.html> Relates facts about the Columbine shootings in which a mother supports my argument that high school students need to be more devoted toward religion.

The Roman games :: History

The Roman games Question : Who were the spectators at Roman games? Discuss the relationship between them and the performers they watched. Gladiator fights were first introduced to Rome in 264 BC, when the sons of Junius Brutus paid honor to their father's funeral by showing three pairs of gladiators fight. This ritual caught on and was performed to honor significant men. As the years passed, the ceremonies became more promoted and emperors began to present the games to symbolize their power. The citizens of Rome loved to go to these bloody warfares. In the city of Rome, these events were held in the Colosseum. An arena so large that it could hold 50,000 spectators and host fights between men and animals. Gladiatorial games occupied a central role in society. Sponsored during the republic by rich magistrates and later in the Empire by the Emperors themselves, the games have long been called an election tool. The games in Rome are known today as the bloodiest exhibitions of public entertainment known to mankind. Men, Women and children flocked to the Colosseum to watch the bloodthirsty fighters murder one another. The spectators came from all over the Roman Empire and various other regions, like Africa. The games became a way of entertaining the wealthy, as well as the common people. "Gladiator", comes from the latin word "gladius", for sword. They were primarily made up of slaves, criminals, prisoners of war or even volunteer free men. The crimes that could lead one to the arena included treason, robbery, and murder, among others. Some free men became gladiators of their own free will in hopes of gaining notoriety and patronage amongst the wealthy citizens. By the end of 50 BC almost half of the gladiators fighting in the Colosseum were free men. The gladiators competed against one another for the sake of public entertainment at festival games. Although some gladiators fought wild animals, the combats usually featured a pair of male human contenders. They fought in diverse styles depending on their background and how much training they had endured. Originally as captured soldiers, they were made to fight with their own weopons. There were also strong sexual references to the gladiator. The word gladius, for sword, was used to mean penis, their helmets were also, occasionally, shaped in the form of a phallus. Even the dead, defeated gladiator, had something sexual about him.

Critical Thinking Assignment

Exercise 1-1 1. What is an argument? An argument is a two part structure of claims; one part contains a premise and the other a conclusion. 2. T or F: A claim is what you use to state an opinion or a belief. 3. T or F: Critical thinking involves attacking other people. 4. Tor F: Whether a passage contains an argument depends on how long it is. 5. T or F: When a claim has been questioned, an issue has been raised. 6. Do all arguments have premises? Yes 7. Do all arguments have conclusions? Yes 8. T or F: if it is impossible for the premises of an argument to be true without the conclusion also being true the argument is deductively valid. . T or F: The more support the premises of an argument provide its conclusion, the stronger the argument. If the premises being true means that probably the conclusion is true, the argument is inductively strong. 10. Can a conclusion be implied, or must it always be explicitly stated? It must always be explicitly stated and consists of words and phra ses like therefore, thus, and consequently. 11. Explain the connection between an argument and an issue. When you have an issue you are raising a question to a claim and arguments are claims structured into two parts. Both are connected through claims. 12. T or F: â€Å"Miller Lite tastes great† is a value judgment. 13. Are all value judgements about matters of taste? 14. T or F: All value judgments are equally subjective. 15. T or F: Only claims subject to scientific testing are worth discussing. 16. T or F: All arguments are used to try to persuade someone of something. 17. T or F: All attempts to persuade someone of something are arguments. 18. T or F: Whenever a claim is called into question, an issue has been raised. 19. T or F: Moral value judgments might all be true. 0. T or F: Sometimes we transfer a favorable or unfavorable opinion of a speaker to what the speaker says 21. T or F: Explanations and arguments serve the same purpose. 22. â€Å"Therefore† and â€Å"consequently† are conclusion indicators. True 23. T or F: â€Å"Rhetorical† or â€Å"emotive force† refers to the emotional content or associations of a word or phrase. 24. T or F: the rhetorical force of language can get in the way of clear and critical thinking. 25. T or F: We should not try to put our own position on any issue in the most favorable light.

Of Studies by Francis Bacon Essay

Of Studies is the first essay of the first collection of ten essays of Francis Bacon which was published in 1597. But it was revised for the edition of 1612. More than dozen new sentences were added and some words were also altered. Of Studies is typically Baconian essay with an astonishing terseness, freshness of illustrations, logical analysis, highly Latinized vocabulary, worldly wisdom and Renaissance enlightenment. Bacon through a syllogistic tripartite statement begins his argument to validate the usefulness and advantage of study in our life. Bacon has the power of compressing into a few words a great body of thought. Thus he puts forward the three basic purposes of studies: â€Å"Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability†. He later expands his sentence to bring lucidity and clearness. Studies fill us delight and aesthetic pleasure when we remain private and solitary. While we discourse, our studies add decoration to our speech. Further, the men of study can decide best on the right lines in business and politics. Bacon deprecates too much studies and the scholar’s habit to make his judgment from his reading instead of using his independent views. Bacon is a consummate artist of Renaissance spirit. Thus he knows the expanse of knowledge and utility of studies. He advocates a scientific enquiry of studies. Through an exquisite metaphor drawn from Botany he compares human mind to a growing plant. As the growing plants need to be pruned and watered and manured for optimum development, the new growing conscience of us are to be tutored, mounded, oriented and devised by studies. But it is experience which ultimately matures our perception and leads us to perfection: â€Å"They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants that need proyning by study†. Next Bacon considers what persons despise studies and what people praise them and what people make practical use of them. The crafty men condemn studies; simple men admire them while the wise men make ultimate use of it. But it should be remembered that the inquisitive mind and keen observation  cultivate the real wisdom. Bacon advises his readers to apply studies to ‘weigh and consider’ rather than useless contradictions and grandiloquence. In The Advancement of Learning Bacon makes systematic classifications of studies and considers different modes to be employed with different kinds of books: â€Å"Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested†. The books according to its value and utility are to be devised into various modes of articulations. The worthy classical pragmatic sort are to be adorned by expertise reading with diligence while the meaner sort of books or less important books are to be read in summary or by deputy. Again the global span of knowledge is revealed in his analysis of various subjects and their beneficent categories. The scholarly mind of Bacon here makes the subtle observation: â€Å"Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend†. Studies do not shape a perfect man without the needed conference and writing. â€Å"And therefore if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth’ not†. Bacon further tells us that our studies pass into our character (Abeunt studia in mores). Rightly so the constitution of our moral disposition is the outcome of our learning and experience. Every defect of the mind, Bacon says, may be cured by a proper choice of reading. Bacon here draws a parallel between the physical exercise and intellectual exercise. As different games, sports, exercises beget growth and development, the different branches of studies cures the in capability of logic, wondering of wit, lack of distinguish etc. Bacon emphatically concludes that every defect of the mind may have a special receipt and remedial assurance. Of Studies contains almost all the techniques of Bacon’s essay writing and the world of his mind. It is full of wisdom, teachings and didacticism. In style, the essay is epigrammatic proverbial form, of balance and force. It is full of warmth and colour, profound wit and knowledge, experience and observation.